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The term was coined in by Manfred Clynes and Nathan S. Halacy's Cyborg: Evolution of the Superman featured an introduction which spoke of a "new frontier" that was "not merely space, but more profoundly the relationship between 'inner space' to 'outer space' — a bridge between mind and matter. According to some definitions of the term, the physical attachments that humans phd thesis biomedical ner with even the most basic technologies have already made them cyborgs.
Implants, especially cochlear implantsthat combine mechanical modification with any phd thesis biomedical ner of feedback response are also cyborg enhancements, phd thesis biomedical ner. Some theorists [ who? As cyborgs currently are on the rise, some theorists [ who? For instance, a bio-techno-social definition of aging has been suggested. The term is also used to address human- technology mixtures in the abstract.
This includes not only commonly-used pieces of technology such as phonescomputersthe Internetand so on, but also artifacts that may not popularly be considered technology; for example, pen and paperand speech and language. When augmented with these technologies and connected in communication with people in other times and places, a person becomes capable of much more than they were before. An example is a computer, which gains power by using Internet protocols to connect with other computers.
Another example is a social-media bot —either a bot-assisted human or a human-assisted-bot—used to target social media with likes and shares. a powered exoskeleton. The computer game Deus Ex: Invisible War prominently features cyborgs called Omar, Russian for 'lobster'.
In science fictionthe most stereotypical portrayal of a cyborg is a person or, more rarely, an animal with visible added mechanical parts. These include the superhero Cyborg from DC Comics and the Borg race from the Star Trek Universe. However, phd thesis biomedical ner, cyborgs can also be portrayed as looking more robotic or more organic.
They may appear as humanoid robotssuch as Robotman from DC's Doom Patrol or most varieties of the Cybermen from Doctor Who ; they can appear as non-humanoid robots such as the Daleks again, from Doctor Who or like the majority of the motorball players in Battle Angel Alita and its prequel Ashen Victor. More human-appearing cyborgs may cover up their mechanical parts with phd thesis biomedical ner or clothing, phd thesis biomedical ner, such as Darth Vader Star Wars or Misty Knight Marvel Comics.
Cyborgs may have mechanical parts or bodies that appear human. For example, the eponymous Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman from their respective television series have prostheses externally identical to the body parts that they replaced; while Major Motoko Kusanagi Ghost in the Shell is a full-body cyborg whose body appears human.
In these examples, among others, it is common for cyborgs to have superhuman physical or mental abilities, including great strengthenhanced senses, computer-assisted brains, or built-in weaponry, phd thesis biomedical ner.
The concept of a man-machine mixture was widespread in science fiction before World War II. As early asEdgar Allan Poe described a man with extensive prostheses in the short story " The Man That Was Used Up ". InJean de La Hire introduced the Nyctalopea science fiction hero who was perhaps the first literary cyborg, in Le Mystère des XV later translated as The Nyctalope on Mars.
He later featured the talking, living brain of an old scientist, Simon Wright, floating around in a transparent case, phd thesis biomedical ner, in all the adventures of his famous hero, Captain Future. Inin the short story " No Woman Born ", C. Moore wrote of Deirdre, a dancerwhose body was burned completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful and supple mechanical body.
Inthe term "cyborg" was coined by Manfred E, phd thesis biomedical ner. Clynes and Nathan S. Kline to refer to their conception of an enhanced human being who could survive in extraterrestrial environments: [1]. For the exogenously extended organizational complex functioning as an integrated homeostatic system unconsciously, we propose the term 'Cyborg'. Their concept was the outcome of thinking about the need for an intimate relationship between human and machine as the new frontier of space exploration was beginning to open up.
A designer of physiological instrumentation and electronic data-processing systems, Clynes was the chief research scientist in the Dynamic Simulation Laboratory at Rockland State Hospital in New York. The term first appears in print 5 months earlier when The New York Times reported on the "Psychophysiological Aspects of Space Flight Symposium" where Clynes and Kline first presented their paper:.
A cyborg is essentially a man-machine system in which the control mechanisms of the human portion are modified externally by drugs or regulatory devices so that the being can live in an environment different from the normal one. Thereafter, Hamilton would first use the term "cyborg" explicitly in the short story, "After a Judgment Day", to describe the "mechanical analogs" called "Charlies," explaining that "[c]yborgs, they had been called from the first one in the s cybernetic organisms.
Ina book titled Cyborg: Digital Destiny and Human Possibility in the Age of the Wearable Computer was published by Doubleday. Cyborg tissues structured with carbon nanotubes and plant or fungal cells have been used in artificial tissue engineering to produce new materials for mechanical and electrical uses.
Such work was presented by Raffaele Di GiacomoBruno Marescaand others, at the Materials Research Society 's spring conference on 3 April It could also be shaped in the desired forms.
Cells combined with multi-walled carbon nanotubes MWCNTs co-precipitated as a specific aggregate of cells and nanotubes that formed a viscous material.
Likewise, dried cells still acted as a stable matrix for the MWCNT network. When observed by optical microscopyphd thesis biomedical ner, the material resembled an artificial " tissue " composed of highly packed cells. The effect of cell drying was manifested by their " ghost cell " appearance.
A rather specific physical interaction between MWCNTs and cells was observed by electron microscopysuggesting that the cell wall the outermost part of fungal and plant cells may play a major active role in phd thesis biomedical ner a carbon nanotube's network and its stabilization.
This novel material can be used in a wide range of electronic applications, from heating to sensing. For instance, using Candida albicans cells, a species of yeast that often lives inside the human gastrointestinal tractcyborg tissue materials with temperature sensing properties have been reported.
In current prosthetic applications, the C-Leg system developed by Otto Bock HealthCare is used to replace a human leg that has been amputated because of injury or illness. The use of sensors in the artificial C-Leg aids in walking significantly by attempting to replicate the user's natural gaitas it would be prior to amputation.
In vision sciencedirect brain implants have been used to treat non- congenital acquired blindness, phd thesis biomedical ner. One of the first scientists to come up with a working brain interface to restore sight was a private researcher William Dobelle. Dobelle's first prototype was implanted into "Jerry", a man blinded in adulthood, in A single-array BCI containing 68 electrodes was implanted onto Jerry's visual cortex and succeeded in producing phosphenesthe sensation of seeing light.
The system included cameras mounted on glasses to send signals to the implant. Initially, the implant allowed Jerry to see shades of grey in a limited field of vision at a low frame-rate.
This also required him to be hooked up to a two-ton mainframebut shrinking electronics and faster computers made his artificial eye more portable and now enable him to perform simple tasks unassisted. InPhilip Kennedy, a scientist and physician, phd thesis biomedical ner, created the world's first human cyborg from Johnny Raya Vietnam veteran who suffered a stroke.
Ray's body, as doctors called it, was "locked in". Ray wanted his old life back so he agreed to Kennedy's experiment. Kennedy embedded an implant he designed and named a " neurotrophic electrode " near the injured part of Ray's brain so that Ray would be able to have some movement back in his body.
The surgery went successfully, but inPhd thesis biomedical ner died. InCanadian Jens Naumannalso blinded in adulthood, became the first in a series of 16 paying patients to receive Dobelle's second-generation implant, marking one of the earliest commercial uses of BCIs. The second-generation device used a more sophisticated implant enabling better mapping of phosphenes into coherent vision.
Phosphenes are spread out across the visual field in what researchers call the starry-night effect. Immediately phd thesis biomedical ner his implant, Naumann was able to use his imperfectly restored vision to drive slowly around the parking area of the research institute. In contrast to replacement technologies, inunder the heading Project Cyborga British scientist, Kevin Warwickhad phd thesis biomedical ner array of electrodes fired into his nervous system in order to link his nervous system into the internet to investigate enhancement possibilities.
With this in place, Warwick successfully carried out a series of experiments including extending his nervous system over the internet to control a robotic handalso receiving feedback from the fingertips in order to control the hand's grip. This was a form of extended sensory phd thesis biomedical ner. Subsequently, he investigated ultrasonic input in order to remotely detect the distance to objects.
Finally, with electrodes also implanted into his wife's nervous system, they conducted the first direct electronic communication experiment between the nervous systems of two humans. SinceBritish artist Neil Harbisson has had a cyborg antenna implanted in his head that allows him to extend his perception of colors beyond the human visual spectrum through vibrations in his skull. Rob Spencea Toronto-based filmmakerwho titles himself a real-life "Eyeborg," severely damaged his right eye in a shooting accident on his grandfather's farm as a child.
Under Mann's guidance, Spence, at age 36, created a prototype in the form of the miniature camera which could be fitted inside his prosthetic eye ; an invention that would come to be named by Time magazine as one of the best inventions of The bionic eye records everything he sees and contains a 1. The eye is not connected to his brain and has not restored his sense of vision. Additionally, Spence has also installed a laser -like LED light in one version of the prototype. Furthermore, many cyborgs with multifunctional microchips injected into a hand are known to exist.
With the chips they are able to swipe cardsopen or unlock doorsoperate devices such as printers or, with some using cryptocurrencybuy products, such as drinks, with a wave of the hand, phd thesis biomedical ner. bodyNET is an application of human-electronic interaction currently [ when? According to their article in Naturethe technology is composed of smart devicesscreens, and a network of sensors that can be implanted into the body, woven into the skin or worn as clothes.
It has been suggested, that this platform can potentially replace the smartphone in the future. The US-based company Backyard Brains released what they refer to as the "world's first commercially available cyborg" called the RoboRoach. The project started as a senior design project for a University of Michigan biomedical engineering student inphd thesis biomedical ner and was launched as an available beta product on 25 February The RoboRoach was officially released into production via a TED talk at the TED Global conference; [38] and via the crowdsourcing website Kickstarter in[39] the kit allows students to use microstimulation to momentarily control the movements of a walking cockroach left and right using a Bluetooth -enabled smartphone as the controller.
Other groups have developed cyborg insects, including researchers at North Carolina State University[40] [41] UC Berkeley[42] [43] and Nanyang Technological University, phd thesis biomedical ner, Singapore[44] [45] but the RoboRoach was the first kit available to the general public and was funded by the National Institute of Mental Health as a device to serve as a teaching aid to promote an interest in neuroscience.
In the late s, scientists created cyborg jellyfish using a microelectronic prosthetic that propels the animal to swim almost three times faster while using just twice the metabolic energy of their unmodified peers. The prosthetics can be removed without harming the jellyfish. In medicinethere are two important and different types of cyborgs: the restorative and the enhanced. Restorative technologies "restore lost function, organs, phd thesis biomedical ner, and limbs.
There is no enhancement phd thesis biomedical ner the original faculties and processes that were lost. On the contrary, phd thesis biomedical ner, the enhanced cyborg "follows a principle, phd thesis biomedical ner, and it is the principle of optimal performance: maximising output the information or modifications obtained and minimising input the energy expended in the process ". Although prostheses in general supplement lost or damaged body parts with the integration of a mechanical artifice, bionic implants in medicine allow model organs or body phd thesis biomedical ner to mimic the original function more closely.
Michael Chorost wrote a memoir of his experience with cochlear implants, or bionic ears, titled Rebuilt: How Becoming Part Computer Made Me More Human. The ethics and desirability of "enhancement prosthetics" have been debated; their proponents include the transhumanist movementwith its belief that new technologies can assist the human race in developing beyond its present, normative limitations such as aging and disease, as well as other, more general inabilities, such as limitations on phd thesis biomedical ner, strength, endurance, and intelligence.
Opponents of the concept describe what they believe to be biases which propel the development and acceptance of such technologies; namely, a bias towards functionality and efficiency that may compel assent to a view of human people which de-emphasizes as defining characteristics actual manifestations of humanity and personhoodin favor of definition in terms of upgrades, versions, and utility.
A brain-computer phd thesis biomedical neror BCI, provides a direct path of communication from the brain to an external device, effectively creating a cyborg.
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